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Effects on antioxidant biology Copper has a complex role in oxidative biology participating in both prooxidant chemistry (through copper-catalyzed reactive oxygen species generation in unfavorable contexts) and antioxidant chemistry (as the cofactor of superoxide dismutase)
However, telomerase activity declines significantly with age in most human cells, contributing to the aging process and age-related cellular dysfunction
However, high homocysteine may trigger acute changes that, over time, develop into chronic disease, especially in sensitive individuals
Individuals taking high-dose B12 supplementswhether oral, sublingual, or intramuscular injectionsmay develop elevated serum levels, particularly if supplementation exceeds physiological requirements
Acknowledgments During the preparation of this manuscript, the authors used OpenAI (GPT-5.2.) for scientific language refinement and grammatical correction